Anotasi Bibliografi Teori PKn

         Anotasi Bibliografi Teori Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan

Anotasi bibliografi ini merupakan kumpulan teori mengenai Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan yang disarikan dari pendapat para ahli. Teori-teori ini dapat dijadikan sebagai bahan kajian, landasan maupun rujukan dalam melaksanakan kegiatan penelitian oleh para akademisi maupun sebagai inspirasi bagi para peminat dan penggiat dunia pendidikan.

Civic and Citizenship Education

Cogan, J.J. (1999).

Developing the Civic Society: The Role of Civic Education.

Bandung: CICED.

Civic Education “…the foundation course work in school designed to prepare young citizens for an active role in their communities in their adult lives”. Citizenship Education or

Education for Citizenship “…both these in school experiencess as well as out of school or non formal/informal learning which takes place in the family, the religious organization, community organizations, the media, etc which help to shape the totality of the citizen” (Cogan, 1999:4).

 

Attributes of Citizenship

Cogan, John J. and Ray Derricott. (1998).

Citizenship Education For the 21st Century: Setting the Context.

London: Kogan Page

The five attributes of citizenship: 1) a sense of identity, 2) the enjoyment of certain rights, 3) the fulfilment of corresponding obligations, 4) a degree of interest and involvement in public affairs, and 5) an acceptance of basic societal values. All five are conveyed through a wide variety of institutions, both governmental and non governmental, including the media, but they are usually seen as a particular responsibility of the school. Citizenship education, in the broadest sense, is an important task in all contemporary societies (Cogan and Derricot, 1998: 2-3).

 

Dimension of Multidimensional Citizenship

Cogan, John J. and Ray Derricott. (1998).

Citizenship Education For the 21st Century: Setting the Context.

London: Kogan Page

The four dimensions embodied in our conceptualization of multidimensional citizenship are personal, social, temporal and spatial (Cogan and Derricott, 1998:11).

 

Citizen and Citizenship

Cogan, John J. and Ray Derricott. (1998).

Citizenship Education For the 21st Century: Setting the Context.

London: Kogan Page

A citizen was defined as ‘a constituent member of society’. Citizenship, on the other hand, was said to be ‘a set of characteristics of being a citizen’. And finally, citizenship education, the underlying focal point of the study, was defined as ‘the contribution of education  to development of those characteristics of being a citizen’ (Cogan and Derricott, 1998:13).

 

Multidimensional Citizenship

Patricia Kubow, David Grossman and Akira Ninomiya

Multidimensional citizenship: educational policy for the 21st Century. p.115

Multidimensional citizenship, this term is intended to describe the complex, multifaceted conceptualization of citizenship and citizenship education that will be needed if citizens are to cope with the challenges (1999:115).

Citizens Characteristic For the 21st Century

Cogan, John J. and Ray Derricott. (1998).

Citizenship Education For the 21st Century: Setting the Context.

London: Kogan Page

Eight citizens characteristic

1. the ability to look at and approach problems as a member of a global society

2. the ability to work with others in a cooperative way and to take responsibility for one’s roles/duties within society

3. the ability to understand, accept, appreciate and tolerate cultural differences

4. the capacity to think in a critical and systemic way

5. the willingness to resolve conflict and in a non-violent manner

6. the willingness to change one’s lifestyle and consumption habits to protect the environment

7. the ability to be sensitive towards and to defend human rights (eg, rights of women, ethnic minorities, etc), and

8. the willingness and ability to participate in politics at local, national and international levels

(Cogan and Derricott, 1998:115).

 

  

Civic Education

Kerr, David. (1999).

Citizenship Education: An International Comparison.

England: National Foundation for Educational Research-NFER

Citizenship or Civics Education is construed broadly to encompass the preparation of young people for their roles and responsibilities as citizens and, in particular, the role of education (through schooling, teaching and learning) in that preparatory process (Kerr, 1999:2).

  

The Purpose of Citizenship Education

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. (1998).

Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools: Final Report of

the Advisory Group for Citizenship. (Chair: Bernard Crick).

London: QCA.

The purpose of citizenship education in schools and colleges is to make secure and to increase the knowledge, skills and values relevant to the nature of participative democracy; also to enhance the awareness of rights and duties, and the sense of responsibilities needed for the development of pupils into active citizens.

   

The Purposes of Education for Citizenship

Osler, A. and Starkey, H. (1996).

Teacher Education and Human Rights.

London: David Fulton

Education for citizenship is concerned with both the personal development of students and the political and social development of society at local, national and international levels. On a personal level, CE is about integration into society. It is about overcoming structural barriers to equality: challenging racism and sexism in institutions, for instance… on political and social level it is about creating a social order that will help provide security without the need for repression.

              

A Continuum of Citizenship Education

Kerr, David. (1999).

Citizenship Education: An International Comparison.

England: National Foundation for Educational Research-NFER

Citizenship is conceptualised and contested along a continuum, which range from a minimal to a maximal interpretation (McLaughliin, 1992). Minimal: Thin, Exclusive, Elitist, Civics education, Formal, Content led, Knowledge based, Didactic transmission, Easier to achieve, and measure in practice. Maximal: Thick, Inclusive, Activist, Citizenship education, Participative, Process led, Values based, Interactive interpretation, More difficult to achieve, and measure in practice (Kerr, 1999:14).

Approaches to Citizenship Education

Kerr, David. (1999).

Citizenship Education: An International Comparison.

England: National Foundation for Educational Research-NFER

Citizenship education comprises three approaches:

1. Education ABOUT citizenship focuses on providing students with sufficient knowledge and understanding of national history and the structures and processes of government and political life.

2. Education THROUGH citizenship involves students learning by doing, through active, participative experiences in the school or local community and beyond. This learning reinforces the knowledge component.

3. Education FOR citizenship encompasses the other two strands and involves equipping students with a set of tools (knowledge and understanding, skills and aptitudes, values and dispositions) which enable them to participate actively and sensibly in the roles and responsibilities they encounter in their adult lives. This strand links citizenship education with the whole education experience of students (Kerr, 1999:15-16).

 

Framework for Citizenship Education

Quigley, C.N. Buchanan Jr. J.H. & Bahmueller, C.F. eds. (1991).

Civitas: A Framework for Civic Education.

Center for Civic Education: Calabasas.

The Center for Citizenship Education of the United States of America proposed the three interrelated components of civic virtues, civic knowledge and civic skills as the aims and/or framework for citizenship education.(Quigley, Buchanan Jr., and Bahmueller, 1991).

1. Civic virtues consists of the traits of character, disposition, and commitments necessary for the preservation and improvement of democratic governance and citizenship. Examples of civic virtues are individual responsibility, self-discipline, integrity, patriotism, toleration of diversity, patience and consistency, and compassion for others. Commitments include, a dedication to human rights, equality, the common good, and a rule of law.

2. Civic knowledge covers fundamental ideas and information that learners must know and use to become effective and responsible citizens of a democracy. Civic knowledge normally includes types and systems of government, politics, political institutions and processes and the role of citizens in relation to the governance.   

3. Civic skills include the intellectual skills required to understand, compare, explain and evaluate various principles and practices of government and citizenship. They also include the participatory skills that enable citizens to monitor and influence public policies (Quiqley 2000).

 

Global Trends in Civic Education

Patrick, J.J. (1997). ‘Global Trends in Civic Education for Democracy’.

ERIC Clearing for Social Studies/Social Science Education,

http://www.indiana.edu/ssdc/glotrdig.

Patrick (1997) proposed nine global trends that have broad potential for influencing citizenship education in the constitutional democracies of the world. They are:

(1) Conceptualising of citizenship education in terms of the three interrelated components of civic knowledge, civic skills and civic virtue.

(2) Systematic teaching of core concepts about democratic governance and citizenship.

(3) Analysis of case studies by students to apply core concepts or principles.

(4) Development of decision-making skills.

(5) Comparative and international analysis of government and citizenship.

(6) Development of participatory skills and civic virtues through cooperative learning activities.

(7) The use of literature to teach civic virtues.

(8) Active learning of civic knowledge, skills and virtues.

(9) The connection of content and process in teaching and learning of civic knowledge, skills

and virtues.

Teaching of values

Williams, Mary M. (2000).

“Models of Character Education: Perspectives and Developmental Issues.”

Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development 39, 1, 32–40.

“… it is next to impossible to separate the teaching of values from schooling itself; it is a part of schooling whether people are willing to acknowledge it or not. The question ... is how the educator can influence students’ character development effectively so that the impact is positive” (Williams 2000:34).

Conceptions of Character

Lickona, Thomas. (1991).

Educating for Character: How Our Schools Can Teach Respect and Responsibility. New York, NY: Bantam Books

“Good character consists of knowing the good, desiring the good, and doing the good …”

(Lickona, 1991:51)

Much of the debate about whether and how to teach for character is tied into a debate about what “character” means. Character can refer to:

• personality traits or virtues such as responsibility and respect for others

• emotions such as guilt or sympathy

• social skills such as conflict management or effective communication

• behaviours such as sharing or helping, or

• cognitions such as belief in equality or problem-solving strategies.

Thomas Lickona, describes character as “a reliable inner disposition to respond to situations in a morally good way. Character so conceived has three interrelated parts: moral knowing, moral feeling, and moral behaviour” (Lickona, 1991:51).

Citizen Participation

D’Agostino, Maria J. (2006).

Social Capital: Lessons from a Service-Learning Program.

Center For Civic Engagement. Park University International

Citizen Participation is fundamental to democratic governance. The problem has been addressed in the citizen participation literature in a myriad of ways, including the use of technology to involve citizens in the decision making process (D’Agostino, 2006:2).

   
Global Citizen

Louise Douglas. (2002).

“Global Citizenship”. Citizenship Update Institute for Citizenship.

Available at: www.citizen.org.uk/education/resources/html

At Oxfam education we feel that our curriculum for global citizenship is an extremely useful planning tool for teachers wanting to help young people make sense of the world and to develop not only knowledge and understanding but also to skills and attitudes to do so. We see a global citizen as someone who:

1. is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own roles as a world citizen

2. respects and values diversity

3. has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially, culturally,

technologically and environmentally

4. is outraged by social injustice

5. participates in and contributes to the community at a large of levels from the local to the

global

6. is willing to act to make the world a more equitable and sustainable place

7. takes responsibility for their actions.

 

Effective Education for Citizenship

Advisory Group on Education and Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in

Schools. (1998).

Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools.

(Crick Report). London: QCA.

The Citizenship Advisory Group defined ‘effective education for citizenship’ as comprising three separate but interrelated strands. These are to be developed progressively through a young person’s education and training experiences, from pre-school to adulthood (DfEE, 1998:11–13) namely:

1. social and moral responsibility: ‘...children learning from the very beginning self confidence and socially and morally responsible behaviour both in and beyond the classroom, both towards those in authority and towards each other’. This strand acts as an essential pre-condition for the other two strands;

2. community involvement: ‘...learning about and becoming helpfully involved in the life and concerns of their communities, including learning through community involvement and service to the community’. This, of course, like the other two strands, is by no means limited to children’s time in school;

3. political literacy: ‘...pupils learning about, and how to make themselves effective in, public life through knowledge, skills and values’. Here the term ‘public life’ is used in its broadest sense to encompass realistic knowledge of, and preparation for, conflict resolution and decision making, whether involving issues at local, national, European or global level.

 

Character Education

Branson, Margaret Stimmann. (1998).

The Role of Civic Education

A Forthcoming Education Policy Task Force Position Paper From The Communitarian Network

Learning activities such as the following tend to promote character traits needed to participate effectively. For example:

• Civility, courage, self-discipline, persistence, concern for the common good, respect for others, and other traits relevant to citizenship can be promoted through cooperative learning activities and in class meetings, student councils, simulated public hearings, mock trials, mock elections, and students courts.

• Self-discipline, respect for others, civility, punctuality, personal responsibility, and other character traits can be fostered in school and community service learning projects, such as tutoring younger students, caring for the school environment, and participating in voter registration drives.

• Recognition of shared values and a sense of community can be encouraged through celebration of national and state holidays, and celebration of the achievements of classmates and local citizens.

• Attentiveness to public affairs can be encouraged by regular discussions of significant current events.

• Reflection on ethical considerations can occur when studnts are asked to evaluate, take, and defend positions on issues that involve ethical considerations, that is, issues concerning good and bad, rights and wrong.

• Civic mindedness can be increased if schools work with civic organizations, bring community leaders into the classroom to discuss issues with students, and provide opportunities for students to observe and/or participate in civic organizations (Branson, 1998:15).

  

Character Education

Branson, Margaret Stimmann. (1998).

The Role of Civic Education: A Forthcoming Education Policy Task Force Position

Paper From The Communitarian Network

Character is ultimately who we are expressed in action, in how we live, in what we do – and so the children around us know, they absorb and take stock of what they observe, namely us-we adults living and doing things in a certain spirit, getting on with one another in our various ways. Coles (in Branson, 1998:14).

Civic Virtues

L. Bray, Bernard and Larry W. Chappel. (2005).

“Civic Theater for Civic Education”.

In Journal of Political Science Education. Volume 1, Number 1, 2005 (p.83-108).

Civic virtues are the qualities of character and personal skills necessary to make the exercise of citizenship meaningful. Civic virtues give us the capacity to exercise our rights, promote our interests and meet our duties (L. Bray, Bernard and Larry W. Chappel, 2005:86).

Human Rights Education

Davies, Lynn. (2000).

Citizenship Education and Human Rights Education: Key Concepts and Debates.

England: The British Council.

Human rights education shall be defined as training dissemination and information efforts aimed at the building of a universal culture of human rights through the imparting of knowledge and skills and the moulding of attitudes. (UN Decade for Human Rights Education Plan of Action). (Davies, 2000:6).

 

Civic Education in a democracy

Branson, Margaret Stimmann. (1998).

The Role of Civic Education

A Forthcoming Education Policy Task Force Position Paper From The Communitarian

Network

Civic education in a democracy is education in self government. Democratic self government means that citizens are actively involved in their own governance; they do not just passively accept the dictums of others or acquiesce the demands of others (Branson, 1998:3).

 

Multicultural Education

Banks, J. A., & McGee Banks, C. A. (Eds.). (1997).

Multicultural education: Issues and Perspectives (3rd ed).

Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Multiculturalism can be defined as, “A philosophical position and movement that deems that the gender, ethnic, racial, and cultural diversity of a pluralistic society should be reflected in all of the institutionalized structures of educational institutions, including the staff, the norms, and values, the curriculum, and the student body” (Banks & Banks, 1997: 435).

Global Citizenship

Banks, James A. (2004).

Teaching for Multicultural Literacy, Global Citizenship, and Social Justice.

(Parts of this paper are adapted from: James A. Banks, “Introduction: Democratic Citizenship Educationin Multicultural Societies.” In James A. Banks (Editor). Diversity and Citizenship Education: Global Perspectives (pp. 3-15). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004;and from James A. Banks, “Teaching Literacy for Social Justice and Global Citizenship,” Language Arts,

81 (1), September 2003, pp. 18-19)

Citizenship education should help students develop thoughtful and clarified identifications with their cultural communities and their nation-states. It should also help them to develop clarified global identifications and deep understandings of their roles in the world community. Students need to understand how life in their cultural communities and nations influences other nations and the cogent influence that international events have on their daily lives.

 

Civic Education

Branson, Margaret S. (1998).

The Role of Civic Education: A Forthcoming Education Policy Task Force Position

Paper from the Communitarian Network.

Washington, DC: Center for Civic Education

Civic Education is an important component of education that cultivates citizens to participate in the public life of a democracy, to use their rights and to discharge their responsibilities with the necessary knowledge and skills. American schools have advanced a distinctively civic mission since the earliest days of this Republic. It was immediately recognized that a free society must ultimately depend on its citizens, and that the way to infuse the people with the necessary qualities is through education. As one step of this education process, higher education has been assuming the mission to foster citizens with the spirit to lead. The literature on this contribution, and civic education in general, is characterized by its broad time range, its composition of diverse voices from all kinds of participating social units (from individual to government), and the existence of rich international and comparative studies (Branson, 1998).

Citizenship

Gould, J. & Kolb, W.L. eds. (1964).

A Dictionary of the Social Sciences.

New York: The Free Press

Gould and Kolb (1964:88) defined citizenship as a ‘relationship existing between a natural person and political society, known as a state, by which the former owes allegiances and the latter protection’.

Citizenship Education

Cogan, J.J. (1998).

‘Citizenship Education for the 21st Century: Setting the Context’,

in J.J. Cogan and R. Derricott, eds. Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International

Perspective on Education,

Kogan Page, London, pp. 1–20.

Citizenship education has been described as ‘the contribution of education to the development of those characteristics of being a citizen’ (Cogan 1998:13), and the ‘process of teaching society’s rules, institutions, and organizations, and the role of citizens in the well-functioning of society’ (Villegas-Reimer 1997:235).

                           

   

Dimentions of Multidimensional Citizenship

Kubow, P. Grossman, D. & Ninomiya, A. (1998).

‘Multidimensional Citizenship: Educational Policy for the 21st Century’,

in J.J. Cogan & R. Derricott, eds. Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International

Perspective on Education,

Kogan Page, London, pp. 115-134.

Kubow, Grossman and Ninomiya (1998) argued that only a citizenship education that encompasses four interrelated dimensions, namely personal, spatial, social and temporal, will equip students to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century.

  

The Aims and/or Framework for Citizenship Education

Quigley, Charles N, Buchanan Jr., and Bahmueller. (1991).

Civitas: A Framework for Civic Education.

Calabasas: Center for Civic Education

The Center for Citizenship Education of the United States of America proposed the three interrelated components of civic virtues, civic knowledge and civic skills as the aims and/or framework for citizenship education (Quigley, Buchanan Jr., and Bahmueller, 1991).

 

Education for Democratic Citizenship

Naval, Concepcion; Print, Murray & Veldhuis, Ruud. (2002).

”Education for Democratic Citizenship in the New Europe: Context and Reform.”

European Journal of Education. Vol. 37. No. 2.

Education for democratic citizenship aims at developing people’s capabilities of thoughtful and responsible participation as democratic citizens in a political, economic, social, and cultural life (Naval, Print & Veldhuis, 2002: 114).

  
  
Democracy and Citizenship

Dobozy B, Eva. (2004).

Education in and for Democracy and Human Rights: Moving from Utopian Ideals to

Grounded Practice.

Dissertation at Murdoch University.

The concept of democracy and citizenship are complex and can, therefore, not be encompassed within simple definitions. There are multiple version of democratic citizenship and even these are changing over time, in correspondence with social, economic, and political developments on global and local levels. Thus the concept of democratic citizenship can be depicted as being constantly ‘under construction’ (Veldhuis, 1997). (Fachrudin, 2004:89).

   

Education in and for Democracy and Human Rights

Dobozy B, Eva. (2004).

Education in and for Democracy and Human Rights: Moving from Utopian Ideals to

Grounded Practice.

Dissertation at Murdoch University.

The UN resolution declaring the decade for human rights education, 1995-2004 state Human rights education should involve more than provision of information and should constitute a comprehensive life-long process by which people at all levels of development and in all strata of society learn respect for the dignity of others and the means and methods of ensuring that respect in all societies (United Nations, 1994, General Assembly Resolution 49/184).

 

Human Rights Education

Dobozy B, Eva. (2004).

Education in and for Democracy and Human Rights: Moving from Utopian Ideals to

Grounded Practice.

Dissertation at Murdoch University

Kofi Annan, secretary general of the united nations, in this message for human rights day 2000 asks: Why is human rights education so important? Because, as it says in the constitution of the united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organisation (UNESCO), ‘since wars begin in the minds of men (sic), it is in the minds of men that the defence of peace must be constructed’. The more people know their rights, and the more they respect those of others, the better the chance that they will live together in peace. Only when people are educated about human rights can we hope prevent human rights violations, and thus prevent conflict, as well (2000).

Human Rights Education

Dobozy B, Eva. (2004).

Education in and for Democracy and Human Rights: Moving from Utopian Ideals to

Grounded Practice.

Dissertation at Murdoch University.

Those promoting Human Rights Education must focus on changing the language so that people begin to use the word ‘human rights’ in their everyday lives. In this way, the language of human rights will be incorporated into our culture and thoughts. … Only then will we be able to change what is principally ‘a legal and constitutional law culture’ to a system of laws and a constitution based on human rights. Only then will people …see the need for Human Rights Education. (O’Brien (2000), in Dobozy B, Eva. (2004:119).

Human Rights Education

Dobozy B, Eva. (2004).

Education in and for Democracy and Human Rights: Moving from Utopian Ideals to

Grounded Practice.

Dissertation at Murdoch University.

Dennis Banks. (2000). Notes that simply put, human rights education is all learning that develops the knowledge, skills and values of human rights.

  
  

Human Rights in Civic Education

Patrick, John J. (2006).

Human Rights in Civic Education.

Presented to the Conference on Democracy Promotion and International Cooperation,

Sponsored by the Center for Civic Education and the Bundeszentrale fur Politische

Bildung in Denver, Colorado, September 25-29, 2006

They are among the qualities needed to teach well about human rights in civic education.

First, teach the idea of human rights within a framework of core concepts by which representative democracy is defined and understood internationally.

Second, confront the complexity and controversy associated with defining, using, and justifying the idea of human rights in a constitutional and representative democracy.

Third, examine the inevitable and ongoing conflict in every genuine constitutional and representative democracy between majority rule and minority rights.

Fourth, teach comparatively and internationally about human rights in a constitutional and representative democracy.

Fifth, teach the civic dispositions and virtues that enable citizens to secure equal protection for the human rights of everyone in their community through the institutions of constitutional and representative democracy (Patric, John J, 2006:12).

    

  

The Reason and Aim Civic Education

Quigley, Charles N and Charles F. Bahmueller. (1991).

Civitas: A Framework for Civic Education.

Calabasas: Center for Civic Education.

The first and primary reason for civic education in a constitutional democracy is that the health of the body politic requires the widest possible civic participation of its citizens consistent with the public good and the protection of individual rights. The aim of civic education is therefore not just any kind of participation by any kind of citizen; it is the participation of informed and responsible citizens, skilled in the arts of deliberation and effective action (Quigley and Bahmueller, 1991:3).

Civic Education

Quigley, Charles N and Charles F. Bahmueller. (1991).

Civitas: A Framework for Civic Education.

Calabasas: Center for Civic Education.

Civic education in a democratic is education in self-government. Self-government means active participation in self-governance, not passive acquiescence in the actions of others (Quigley and Bahmueller, 1991:3).

Civic Education

Quigley, Charles N and Charles F. Bahmueller. (1991).

Civitas: A Framework for Civic Education.

Calabasas: Center for Civic Education.

No one’s civic potential can be fulfilled without forming and maintaining an intention to pursue the common good; to protect individuals from unconstitutional abuses by government and from attacks on their rights from any source, public or private; to seek the broad knowledge and wisdom that informs judgment of public affairs; and to develop the skill to use that knowledge effectively. Such values, perspectives, knowledge, and skill in civic matters make responsible and effective participation possible. Fostering these qualities constitutes the mission of civic education (Quigley and Bahmueller, 1991:3).

Civic Education

Quigley, Charles N and Charles F. Bahmueller. (1991).

Civitas: A Framework for Civic Education.

Calabasas: Center for Civic Education.

Virtue is the principle of republican government…Virtue in a republic is love of one’s country, that is, love of equality. It is not a moral virtue, not a Christian, but a public virtue (Montesquieu, 1948, in Quigley and Bahmueller, 1991:11).

   

Civic Education

Quigley, Charles N and Charles F. Bahmueller. (1991).

Civitas: A Framework for Civic Education.

Calabasas: Center for Civic Education.

In the CIVITAS curriculum framework, civic virtue is described in terms of civic dispositions and civic commitment.

1. Civic dispositions refer to those attitudes and habits of mind of the citizen that are conducive to the healthy functioning and common good of the democratic system.

2. Civic commitments refer to the freely given, reasoned commitments of the citizen to the fundamental values and principles of American constitutional democracy (Quigley and Bahmueller, 1991:11).

  

Caharacteristics of Competent and Responsible Participation

Quigley, Charles N and Charles F. Bahmueller. (1991).

Civitas: A Framework for Civic Education.

Calabasas: Center for Civic Education.

Civic education’s unique responsibility is not simply to increase participation rates, but to nurture competent and responsible participation. Such participation involves more than merely influencing or attempting to influence public policy. Competent and responsible participation must based upon moral deliberation, knowledge, and reflective inquiry (Quigley and Bahmueller, 1991:40).